Gender roles in Somaliland: A narrative review of traditions, transitions, and transformations

This narrative review synthesized multidisciplinary research on gender roles in Somaliland (1991–2023), employing systematic qualitative methods aligned with RAMESES guidelines. Data were drawn from academic literature, rigorously screened gray literature (NGO/UN/government documents), and 12 ethnographic studies, analyzed through critical discourse analysis. Historically, gender norms were shaped by patrilineal clan structures, customary law (xeer), and Islamic principles, assigning men dominant political/economic roles and women domestic/caregiving duties. Post-conflict transformations—including rising female-headed households- catalyzed significant shifts: Female primary school enrollment surged from 22% (2000) to 67% (2023), urban women dominated cross-border trade (bacdo) and founded 14% of startups, and activism secured a 10% quota for women in local councils (2021). Women’s Peace Committees (WPCs) achieved a 79% land dispute resolution rate using hybrid xeer-international frameworks. Despite progress, entrenched contradictions persisted. Customary and religious systems perpetuated inequalities: women received half-inheritance shares or were excluded from land ownership (only 2% of titles included female co-owners), FGM/C prevalence remained at 98%, and clan mediation (maslaxa) often prioritized reconciliation over GBV justice. Educated women faced stigmatization as "qaaxaysi" (rebellious) and reported higher divorce rates when challenging spousal authority. Cultural resistance, framed as a defense of "Somalinimo" (Somali identity) and conservative Islam, impeded legal reforms and political inclusion, evidenced by parliament’s rejection of a 20% parliamentary quota in 2024. The study concluded that while education, urbanization, and activism drove incremental change, transformative gender equity required addressing structural barriers through culturally nuanced approaches that reconciled statutory reforms with Somaliland’s socio-legal hybridity.